Open Access Open Access  Restricted Access Subscription or Fee Access

A Study and Report on Assessment of Antibiotic Prescribing Patterns and Drug Resistance Among Various Infectious Diseases in Hospital

Mekkanti Manasa Rekha, Greeshma Cherian, Rinku Mathappana

Abstract


Antimicrobial resistance remains the biggest cause of death worldwide. According to the World Health Organization, the age standardized mortality due to infectious diseases in India in 2008 was 377 per 100,000 persons, which is considered as highest in South Asia. This has led to the increased prescribing of antibiotics even at unnecessary conditions, which increased the rate of inappropriate prescribing of antibiotics, which in turn resulted in the emergence of antibiotic resistance. Antibiotic resistance can be controlled by monitoring and implementing strict rules and regulations for the appropriate prescribing of antibiotics among the prescribers and by reducing the overuse of antibiotics among patients by providing patient counseling. The main aim of the present study was to study and report on assessment of antibiotic prescribing patterns and drug resistance among various infectious diseases in the Department of General Medicine, Pediatric, Surgical and Obstetrics/Gynecology at ESI Hospital, Indiranagar, Bangalore, Karnataka, India. Data were collected through treatment chart review and medication history interview maintained in the nursing station of General Medicine, Surgical and Gynecology departments, following the pre-tested structured questionnaire and standard antibiotic indicator generated by the World Health Organization. The patient's medication information was collected through questionnaire and the antibiotic resistance through laboratory reports. Out of 200 prescriptions analyzed, 120 prescriptions comprised of inappropriately prescribed antibiotics and it was found that 68 (56.6%) prescriptions contained multiple prescribing of antibiotics, in which 58.8% was repetition of drug, 41.17% was over prescribing of antibiotics, 18.33% was due to inappropriate choice of antibiotics as a result of uncertain diagnosis, 8.33% was due to wrong duration and frequency, 15% was due to pressure from the patients and 1.66% was due to prescription by inexperienced prescribers or due to decision fatigue among the doctors. It was found that out of 120 prescriptions analyzed 57 prescriptions showed the presence of antimicrobial resistance. This inappropriate pattern of prescribing or administering antibiotics has led to 47.5% of development of resistance against the frequently used antibiotics to treat infections. The present study clearly indicated that there is an urgent need of clinical pharmacist interventions and services in promotion of rational prescribing of antibiotics, by educating, organizing, conducting and participating in programmes on the rational use of antibiotics, by conducting sensitivity testing before antibiotic prescribing and by encouraging the implementation of Antimicrobial stewardship programmes for the appropriate use of antibiotics.

Keywords


antibiotics, antimicrobial resistance, inappropriate prescribing

Full Text:

PDF

References


Parthasarathi G, Nyfort-Hansen K, Nahata MC. A textbook of Clinical Pharmacy Practice: Essential concept and skills; Second edition. New Delhi, India: Orient Blackswan Private Limited; 2012. 1–10p.

Kumar AB, Kumar B, Saipavan M, Gobinath M. A Review on scope, importance and future needs of clinical pharmacy practice in India. International Journal of Current Trends in Pharmaceutical Research. 2015; 3(3): 916–923p.

Jacobi J. Clinical Pharmacists: Practitioners who are essential members of your clinical care team. Revista Medica Clinica Las Condes. 2016; 27(5): 571–577p.

Monson R, Bond CA, Schuna A. Role of clinical pharmacist in improving drug therapy: Clinical pharmacist in OP therapy. Arch. Intern Med. 1981; 141: 1441—1444p.

Ravn-Nielsen LV, Duckert ML, Lund ML, Pilegaard J. Effect of an in-hospital multifaceted clinical pharmacist intervention on the risk of readmission: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern Med. 2015; 66(19): 375–382p.

Dunn SP, Birtcher KK, Beavers CJ, Baker WL, Brouse SD. The role of clinical pharmacist in the care of patients with cardiovascular disease. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 2015; 66(19): 2129–2139p.

Gallagher J, Byrne S, Woods N, Lynch D, McCarthy S. Cost outcome description of clinical pharmacist interventions in a university teaching hospital. BMC Health Services Research. 2014; 14(1): 1–8p.

Khalili H, Farsaei S, Rezaee H, Dashti-Khavidaki S. Role of clinical pharmacist interventions in detection and prevention of medication errors in a medical ward. International Journal of Clinical Pharmacy. 2011; 33 (2): 281–284p.

Reis WCT, Scopel CT, Correr CJ. Analysis of clinical pharmacist interventions in a tertiary teaching hospital in Brazil. Einstein. 2013; 11(2): 190–196p.

Sridevi K, Subbaiah MV, Surekha M, Harani J, Chandini S, Basher S. Clinical pharmacist role in drug information services and medication errors management at tertiary care hospital. IOSR Journal of Dental and Medical Sciences. 2017; 16(6): 16–23p.

Ilango K, Valentina P. Text book of Medicinal Chemistry. Antibacterial Antibiotics. 2019; 2(1): 199p.

Wright GD. The antibiotic resistome: The nexus of chemical and genetic diversity. Nature Reviews Microbiology. 2007; 5(3): 175–186p.

Dryden M, Johnson AP, Ashiru-Oredope D, Sharland M. Using antibiotics responsibly: right drug, right time, right dose and right duration. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 2011; 66(11): 2441–2443p.

Kourkouta L, Kotsiftopoulos CH, Papageorgiou M, Monios A. The rational use of antibiotics medicine. Journal of Healthcare Communications. 2017; 2: 36p. Available at: https://school.med.uoa.gr/Documents/3etos/Farmakologia%20II.pdf

Kotsiftopoulos C, Kourkouta L, Papageorgiou M. The use of antibiotic medicine. Monograph. Saarbrucken, Germany: Lap Lambert Academic Publishing; 2014.

Kourkouta L. PolyPharmacy in Elderly. JPPS. 2016; 103: 1–5p.

Kourkouta L, Frantzana E, Iliadis Ch, Monios A. Health Problems of the Elderly. Monograph. Saarbrucken, Germany: Scholar’s Press; 2016.

Droutsa K. Multipharmacy. Athens, Greece; 2008.

Abriouel H, Omar NB, Molinos AC, López RL, Grande MJ, et al. Comparative analysis of genetic diversity and incidence of virulence factors and antibiotic resistance among enterococcal populations from raw fruit and vegetable foods, water and soil, and clinical samples. Int J Food Microbiol. 2008; 123: 38–49p.

Gitonas M, Karabli EL. Market Regulation Policies Drug. Athens, Greece: Papazisis; 2006.

Gioton M, Kyriopoulos G. Politics and economy of the drug in Greece. Athens, Greece: Papazisis; 2006.

Ilango K. Classification of antibiotics. In: Alagarsamy V, Editor. Medicinal Chemistry, Volume II. New Delhi, India: Elsevier India: 2013.

Last JM. A dictionary of epidemiology, 4th Edition. New York: Oxford University Press; 1988.

Ghazal SS, Al Hawasi M. Manual of Clinical Pediatrics. Infectious Diseases. 2013; 9: 50–56p.

Welis BG, Dipiro JT, Schwinghammer TL, Dipiro CV. Pharmacotherapy handbook, 7th edition. USA: McGraw Hill Education; 2009.

World Health Organization. Antibiotic Resistance. Geneva: WHO; 2020.

Ananthanarayan R, Paniker CKJ. A text book of Microbiology, 11th Edition. New Delhi, India: Universities Press (India) Pvt. Ltd.; 2020

World Health Organization. Global framework for development and stewardship to combat antimicrobial resistance: Draft roadmap. Geneva: WHO; 2017.

McGowan JE, Gerding DN. Does antibiotic restriction prevent resistance? New Horiz. 1996; 4: 370–376p.

Davey P, Brown E, Charani E, Fenelon L, Gould IM, Ramsay CR, et al. Interventions to improve antibiotic prescribing practices for hospital inpatients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013; 4: CD003543. Update in Davey P, Marwick CA, Scott CL, Charani E, McNeil K, Brown, et al. Interventions to improve antibiotic prescribing practices for hospital inpatients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017; 2: CD003543.

Schuts EC, Hulscher ME, Mouton JW, Verduin CM, Stuart JWTC, Overdiek HWPM, et al. Current evidence on hospital antimicrobial stewardship objectives: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis. 2016; 16: 847–856p.

World Health Organization. Towards better stewardship: Concepts and critical issues. Geneva: WHO; 2002.

World Health Organization. WHO Model List of Essential Medicines, 20th List. Geneva: WHO; 2017. 8–15p.

Dellit TH, Owens RC, McGowan JE Jr, Gerding DN, Weinstein RA, Burke JP, et al. IDSA/SHEA guidelines for developing an institutional program to enhance antimicrobial stewardship. Clin Infect Dis. 2007; 44: 159–177p.

World Health Organization. Antimicrobial resistance. Factsheet. Geneva: WHO; 2018. Available at: https://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/antimicrobial-resistance (accessed on 2019 Sep 3).

Mendelson M, Balasegaram M, Jinks T, Pulcini C, Sharland M. Antibiotic resistance has a language problem. Nature. 2017; 545(7652): 23–25p; McGowan JE, Gerding DN. Does antibiotic restriction prevent resistance? New Horiz. 1996; 4: 370–376p.

Dyar OJ, Huttner B, Schouten J, Pulcini C. What is antimicrobial stewardship? Clin Microbiol Infect. 2017; 23(11): 793–798p.

Septimus E, Srinivasan A, Flanders S, Goldmann D, Provost L, Jacobsen D, Amoah B, Zier A. Antibiotic stewardship driver diagram and change package. Boston: Institute for Healthcare Improvement; 2021.

Patra S, Singh V, Pemde HK, Chandra J. Antibiotic prescribing pattern in pediatric in patients with first time wheezing. Italian Journal of Pediatrics. 2011; 37(1): 1–5p.

Cadieux G, Tamblyn R, Dauphinee D, Libman M. Predictors of inappropriate antibiotic prescribing among primary care physicians. CMAJ. 2007; 177(8): 877–883p.

Shapiro DJ, Hicks LA, Pavia AT, Hersh AL. Antibiotic prescribing for adults in ambulatory care in the USA, 2007–09. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 2014; 69(1):234–240p.

Dovey P, Brown E, Charani E, Fenelon L, Gould IM, Holmes A, Ramsay CR, Wiffen PJ. Interventions to improve antibiotic prescribing practices for hospital inpatients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013; 2(2): CD003543.

Hersh AL, Shapiro DJ, Paiva AT, Shah SS. Antibiotic prescribing in ambulatory pediatrics in the United States. Pediatrics. 2011; 128(6): 1053–1061p.

Nyquist AC, Gonzales R, Steiner JF, Sande MA. Antibiotic prescribing for children with colds, upper respiratory tract infections, and bronchitis. JAMA. 1998; 279(11): 875–877p.

Petersen I, Gilbert R, Evans S, Ridolfi A, Nazareth I. Oral antibiotic prescribing during pregnancy in primary care: UK population-based study. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 2010; 65(10): 2238–2246p.

Damkier P, Bronniche LMS, Korch-Frandsen JFB, Broe A. In utero exposure to antibiotics and risk of congenital malformations: a population based study. American Journal of Obststrics and Gynecology. 2019; 221(6): 648.e1-648.

Taskeen M, Anitha NG, Ali SR, Rao B, Khan AB. A study on rational drug prescribing pattern in geriatric patients in Hyderabad metropolitan. Journal of Drug Delivery and Therapeutics. 2012; 2(5): 109–113p.

Nandagopal A, Koneru A, Rahaman A, Pasha MK, Ali MKY. Assessment of rational drug prescribing patterns in geriatric patients in Hyderabad Metropolitan. Indian Journal of Pharmacy Practice. 2017; 10(3): 174–178p.

Basnet S, Paudel KR, Sah AK, Jha RK, Sah P. Prescribing pattern, polypharmacy and potentially inappropriate prescribing in hospitalized elderly patients: a retrospective study in a teaching hospital in Nepal. Int J Sci Rep. 2016; 2(1): 7–12p.

Yap KB, Chan KM. The prescribing pattern of hospital doctors. Singapore Medical Journal. 1998; 39(11): 496–500p.

Forde BM, Henderson A, Playford EG, Looke D, Henderson BC. Fatal respiratory diphtheria caused by beta lactam resistant corynebacterium diptheriae. Clinical Infectious Diseases: An Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. 2020; 8p.

Chua KYL, Vogrin S, Bury S, Douglas A, Holmes NE, Tan N, Brusco NK, Hall R, Lambros B, Lean J. The Penicillin Allergy Delabeling Program: A Multicenter Whole-of-Hospital Health Services Intervention and Comparative Effectiveness Study. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2020; 73(3): 487–496p.

Kaur R, Pham M, Yu KOA, Pichichero ME. Rising Pneumococcal Antibiotic Resistance in the Post–13-Valent Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine Era in Pediatric Isolates From a Primary Care Setting. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2021; 72(5): 797–805p.

Ewig S, Ruiz M, Torres A, Marco F, Martinez J, Sanchez M, Mensa J. Pneumonia acquired in the community through drug resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 1998; 159(6): 1835–1842p.

Rahal JJ, Urban C, Horn D. Class Restriction of Cephalosporin Use to Control Total Cephalosporin Resistance in Nosocomial Klebsiella. JAMA. 1998; 280(14): 1233–1237p.

Cosgrove SE, Kaye KS, Eliopoulous GM. Health and Economic Outcomes of the Emergence of Third-Generation Cephalosporin Resistance in Enterobacter Species. Arch Intern Med. 2002; 162(2): 185–190p.

Potz NAC, Hope R, Warner M, Johnson AP, Livermore DM. Prevalence and mechanisms of cephalosporin resistance in Enterobacteriaceae in London and South-East England. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 2006; 58(2): 320–326p.

Osato MS, Reddy R, Reddy SG, et al. Pattern of Primary Resistance of Helicobacter pylori to Metronidazole or Clarithromycin in the United States. Arch Intern Med. 2001; 161(9): 1217–1220p.

Lee CE, Zembower TR, Fotis MA, et al. The Incidence of Antimicrobial Allergies in Hospitalized Patients: Implications Regarding Prescribing Patterns and Emerging Bacterial Resistance. Arch Intern Med. 2000; 160(18): 2819–2822p.

Dong L, Yan H, Wang D. Antibiotic prescribing patterns in village health clinics across 10 provinces of Western China. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 2008; 62(2): 410–415p.

Metlay JP, Shea,JA, Crossette LB, Asch DA. Tensions in Antibiotic Prescribing: Pitting Social Concerns against the Interests of Individual Patients. Journal of General Internal Medicine. 2002; 17(2): 87–94p.

Copp HL, Shapiro DJ, Hersh AL. National Ambulatory Antibiotic Prescribing Patterns for Pediatric Urinary Tract Infection, 1998–2007. Official Journal of the American Academy of Pediatrics. 2011; 127(6): 1027–1033p.

Doyne EO, Alfaro MP, Siegel RM, et al. A Randomized Controlled Trial to Change Antibiotic Prescribing Patterns in a Community. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2004; 158(6): 577–583p.

Tamuno I, Fadare JO. Drug Prescription Pattern in a Nigerian Tertiary Hospital. Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research. 2012; 11(1): 146–152p.

Yimenu DA, Emam A, Elemineh E, Atalay W. Assessment of Antibiotic Prescribing Patterns at Outpatient Pharmacy Using World Health Organization Prescribing Indicators. Journal of Primary Care & Community Health. 2019; 10: 2150132719886942.

Salman MT, Akram MF, Rahman S, Khan FA, Haseen MA, Khan SW. Drug prescribing pattern in surgical wards of a teaching hospital in North India. Drug Utilization Studies. 2008; 5(2): 05–06p.

Suryawanshi S, Pandit V, Suryawanshi P, Panditrao A. Antibiotic Prescribing Pattern in a Tertiary Level Neonatal Intensive Care Unit. J Clin Diagn Res. 2015; 9(11): 21–24p.

Feleke M, Yenet W, Lenjisa JL. Prescribing pattern of antibiotics in pediatric wards of Bishoftu Hospital, East Ethiopia. International Journal of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. 2013; 2(6): 718–722p.

Llor C, Bjerrum L. Antimicrobial resistance: risk associated with antibiotic overuse and initiatives to reduce the problem. SAGE. 2014; 5(6): 229–241p.

Halczli A, Woolley A. Medication underdosing and underprescribing: Issues that may contribute to polypharmacy, poor outcomes. Formulary. 2013; 48: 194–196p.

Van den HPM, Los M, van Marum RJ, Jansen PA. Polypharmacy and under prescribing in older adults: Rational under prescribing by general practitioners. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2011; 59: 1750–1752p.

Llor C, Bjerrum L. Antimicrobial resistance: Risk associated with antibiotic overuse and initiatives to reduce the problem. Ther Adv Drug Saf. 2014; 5: 229–241p.

O’Connor MN, Gallagher P, O’Mahony D. Inappropriate prescribing: Criteria, detection and prevention. Drugs Aging. 2012; 29: 437–452p.

Godman B, Shrank W, Andersen M, Berg C, Bishop I, Burkhardt T, Garuoliene K, Herholz H, Joppi R, Kalaba M,, et al. Comparing policies to enhance prescribing efficiency in Europe through increasing generic utilization: Changes seen and global implications. Expert Rev Pharmacoecon Outcomes Res. 2010; 10: 707–722p.

Ofori-Asenso R, Agyeman AA. Irrational Use of Medicines-A Summary of Key Concepts. Pharmacy. 2016; 4 (4): 35p.

Admassie E, Begashaw B, Tesfaye WH. Assessment of drug use practices and completeness of prescriptions in Gondar university teaching referral hospital. Int J Pharm Sci Res. 2013; 4: 265–275p.

Worku F, Tewahido D. Retrospective assessment of antibiotics prescribing at public primary healthcare facilities in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Interdiscip Perspect Infect Dis. 2018; 2018: 4323769.

Fleming-Dutra K, et al. Prevalence of inappropriate antibiotic prescription among US ambulatory care visits, 2010–2011. Journal of American Medical Association. 2011; 315(17): 1864–1873p.

Hariharan S, Pillai G, Mcintosh D, Bhanji Z, Culmer L, Harper-Mcintosh K. Prescribing patterns and utilization of antimicrobial drugs in a tertiary care teaching hospital of a Caribbean developing country. Fundam Clin Pharmacol. 2009; 23: 609–615p.

Ider BE, Clements A, Adams J, Whitby M, Muugolog T. Prevalence of hospital-acquired infections and antibiotic use in two tertiary Mongolian hospitals. J Hosp Infect. 2010; 75: 214–219p.

Kuscu F, Ulu A, Tasova Y. Potential drug-drug interactions with antimicrobials in hospitalized patients: A multicenter point-prevalence study. Med Sci Monit. 2016; 24: 4240–4247p.

Chem ED, Anong DN, Akoachere JKT. Prescribing patterns and associated factors of antibiotic prescription in primary health care facilities of Kumbo East and Kumbo West Health Districts, North West Cameroon. PLoS One. 2018; 13(3): e0193353.

Ntsekhe M, Hoohlo-Khotle N, Tlali M, Tjipura D. Antibiotic prescribing pattern at six hospitals in Lesotho. Geneva: WHO; 2011. Available at: http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/documents/s21028en/s21028en.pdf (Accessed 2019 October 7).

Getachew E, Aragaw S, Adissie W, Agalu A. Antibiotic prescribing pattern in a referral hospital in Ethiopia. Afr J Pharm Pharmacol. 2013; 7: 2657–2661p.

Desalegn AA. Assessment of drug use pattern using WHO prescribing indicators at Hawassa University Teaching and Referral Hospital, south Ethiopia: a cross-sectional study. BMC Health Serv Res. 2013; 13: 170p.

Isah AO, Ross-Degnan D, Quick J, Laing R, Mabadeje AFB. The development of standard values for WHO prescriber indicators. Geneva: WHO; 2004. Available at: http://archives.who.int/icium/icium1997/posters/1a2_txt.html (Accessed on 2019 October 8).

Kizzie-Hayford J, Walker E, Ampofo-Asiama A. Antibiotic prescription pattern in a Ghanaian primary health care facility. Pan Afr Med J. 2017; 28: 214p.

World Health Organization. Action Programme on Essential Drugs and Vaccines. How to investigate drug use in health facilities: selected drug use indicators. Geneva: WHO; 1993. Available at: https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/60519 (Accessed on 2019 October 21).

Summoro TS, Gidebo KD, Kanche ZZ, Woticha EW. Evaluation of trends of drug prescribing patterns based on WHO prescribing indicators at outpatient departments of four hospitals in southern Ethiopia. Drug Des Devel Ther. 2015; 9: 4551–4557p.

Bosibori ML. Antibiotic prescribing patterns at Rift Valley Provincial General Hospital: a point prevalence survey. M.Pharm. Thesis. Nairobi: University of Nairobi; 2017. Available at: http://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/bitstream/handle/11295/102500/Momanyi_Ant. (Accessed on 2019 Oct 8).

Ata M, Hoque R, Biswas RSR, Mostafa A, Hasan FU, Barua HR. Antibiotics prescribing pattern at outpatient department of a tertiary medical college hospital. Chattagram Maa-O-Shishu Hosp Med Coll J. 2019; 17: 36–39p.

Cherazard R, et al. Antimicrobial resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae: Prevalence, Mechanisms, and Clinical Implications. Am J Ther. 2017; 24(3): e361–e369.

Olorunmola FO, Kolawole DO, Lamikanra A. Antibiotic resistance and virulences properties in E. coli strains from cases of urinary tract infections. Afr J Infect Dis. 2013; 7(1): 1–7p

Bae S, Lee J, Kang Y. Antimicrobial resistance in H.influenzae respiratory tract isolates in Korea: Results of a Nation-wide acute respiratory infection survelliance. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2010; 54(1): 65–71p.

Karlowsky JA, Kelly LJ, Thornsberry C, Jones ME, Evangelista AT, et al. Susceptibility to fluoroquinolones among commonly iolated Gram negative bacilli in 2000: TRUST and TSN data for the US. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2000; 19: 21–31p.

Bauer AW, Kirby WM, Sherris JC, Turck M. Antibiotic susceptibility testing by a standardized single disk method. Am J Clin Pathol. 1966; 45: 493–496p.

Reller LB, Weinstein M, Jorgensen JH, Ferraro MJ. Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing: A Review of General Principles and Contemporary Practices. Clin Infect. Dis. 2009; 49: 1749–1755p.

Guardino RF. Early History of Microbiology and Microbiological Methods. Wilmington, DE, USA: Parenteral Drug Association; 2005.

Ericsson HM, Sherris JC. Antibiotic sensitivity testing. Report of an international collaborative study. Acta Pathol Microbiol Scand. 1971; 217: 4325956.

Jorgensen JH, Turnidge JD, Washington JA, Murray PR, Pfaller MA, Tenover FC, Baron EJ, Yolken RH. Antibacterial susceptibility tests: Dilution and disk diffusion Methods. In: 100. Manual of Clinical Microbiology. Washington, DC, USA: Geo. F. Brooks Publisher; 1999.

Sanchez ML, Jones RN. E test, an antimicrobial susceptibility testing method with broad clinical and epidemiologic application. Antimicrobial News. 1992; 8: 1–7p.

Sader HS, Pignatari AC. E test: A novel technique for antimicrobial susceptibility testing. Sao Paulo Med J Rev Paul Med. 1994; 112: 635–638p.

Baker CN, Stocker SA, Culver DH, Thornsberry C. Comparison of the E Test to agar dilution, broth microdilution, and agar diffusion susceptibility testing techniques by using a special challenge set of bacteria. J Clin Microbiol. 1991; 29: 533–538p.

Cockerill FR. Genetic methods for assessing antimicrobial resistance. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1999; 43: 199–212p.

Chen CH, Lu Y, Sin MLY, Mach KE, Zhang DD, Gau V, Liao JC, Wong PK. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing using high surface-to-volume ratio microchannels. Anal Chem. 2010; 82: 1012–1019p.

Marques SM, Esteves da Silva JC. Firefly bioluminescence: A mechanistic approach of luciferase catalyzed reactions. IUBMB Life. 2009; 61: 6–17p.

Dong T, Zhao X. Rapid identification and susceptibility testing of uropathogenic microbes via immunosorbent ATP-bioluminescence assay on a microfluidic simulator for antibiotic therapy. Anal Chem. 2015; 87: 2410–2418p.

Ivancic V, Mastali M, Percy N, Gornbein J, Babbitt JT, Li Y, Landaw EM, Bruckner DA, Churchill BM, Haake DA. Rapid antimicrobial susceptibility determination of uropathogens in clinical urine specimens by use of ATP bioluminescence. J Clin Microbiol. 2008; 46: 1213–1219p.

Akhtar M, Vohora D, Pillai K, Dubey K, Roy M, Najmi A, et al. Drug prescribing practices in pediatric department of a North Indian University Teaching Hospital. Asian J Pharm Clin Res. 2012; 5(1): 146–149p.




DOI: https://doi.org/10.37591/rrjomst.v10i2.2684

Refbacks

  • There are currently no refbacks.


Copyright (c) 2021 Research & Reviews: Journal of Medical Science and Technology